Categories
Poultry

Raising Turkeys for Meat and Eggs Year Round

royal palm turkey on farm raising turkeys for meat
Oregon Department of Agriculture/Flickr

Raising turkeys for meat and eggs is a popular choice and has a loyal following among small-scale, sustainable farmers. With a little know-how, it’s possible to successfully add these feathered fowl to your farm.

“I enjoy the birds, their sounds and expressions,” says Lynn Gillespie of The Living Farm, in Paonia, Colo. Gillespie started raising heritage varieties, including Narragansetts, Bourbon Reds, Slates and Bronze, alongside Broad Breasted Whites eight years ago and believes that the birds are a profitable addition to her farm.

The biggest reason for raising turkeys for meat, especially heritage varieties, is for the holiday market, according to Don Schrider, author of Storey’s Guide to Raising Turkeys (3rd edition, 2013).

“There is a huge demand for turkey at Thanksgiving and Christmas,” he says, “and it can be a very profitable market.”

But it’s also possible to create a market outside of Thanksgiving and Christmas. The birds produce eggs and meat that is popular for bacon, sausage and ground turkey.

Although raising turkeys for meat and eggs is low-maintenance and suitable for beginning farmers, they are not chickens.

“They might look similar,” Gillespie says, “but they need different care; if you raise your turkeys like chickens, there is a good chance that all your turkeys will die.”

Choose The Best Turkeys

Farmers can choose between commercial/industrial varieties and heritage varieties when raising turkeys for meat. Industrial varieties, such as the Broad Breasted White and the Broad Breasted Bronze, are fast-growing birds that produce meaty, moist breasts. It takes about 20 weeks to grow the birds; hens will grow up to 20 pounds and toms, up to 70 pounds. Industrial birds are often raised in poultry houses with limited light and access to the outdoors.

The rapid growth cycle of commercial varieties means the meat is cheaper to produce and sell, which can appeal to a broader consumer market. In contrast, heritage turkeys come in multiple varieties—the American Poultry Association recognizes seven distinct varieties including Black, Bourbon Red and Royal Palm—each with its own feather pattern and color. Heritage birds are raised outdoors and take up to 16 months to reach 12 pounds.

Although the market for heritage turkeys is smaller, the birds fetch a premium price.

“You have to choose between meat and flavor,” Schrider says. “The volume of meat on an industrial bird is greater but the flavor of a heritage bird is much more intense.”

Once you know which variety you want for raising turkeys for meat and eggs, locate a breeder. To ensure the birds come from disease-free stock, choose a hatchery that participated in the USDA’s National Poultry Improvement Plan; a reputable hatchery will be able to provide their NPIP number. Eggs and poults can be shipped via the U.S. Postal Service.

Raising Poults

Industrial varieties are often raised in confinement. Poults are started in a small section of the poultry house, and as they grow and need additional space, they are moved into the main part. It’s also possible to raise industrial varieties on pasture.

To keep poults safe, keep them in a brooder until they are at least 8 weeks old. Be sure to provide at least 1 square foot of floor space per poult to prevent cannibalism; after 6 weeks of age, increase it to a minimum of 2 square feet. Poults that are confined past 12 weeks of age need at least 3 square feet of floor space each. In a brooder, Gillespie favors keeping poults in groups of up to 15, but not more: Poults will potentially smother each other in larger numbers.

Once the birds are old enough, they can be released onto the pasture until harvest, either to free-range or be kept with electric fencing and a shelter. Be sure to keep turkeys and chickens separate, especially in areas where blackhead disease is a problem.

“Chickens will be immune, but they can be carriers and turkeys will get it,” Schrider explains.

To protect the flock, keep turkeys at least 200 feet from chicken pastures and use a barrier to keep them separate; both flocks should have their own pastures, housing, feed and watering equipment. If birds are being raised on pasture, it’s essential to provide shelter and roosts as well as fresh water and feed. Pastured turkeys eat a mix of ­formulated food mix and forage.

“Poults need more protein than chicks,” Gillespie says. “You need to feed them a turkey starter not chicken starter.”

Gillespie also feeds her turkeys weeds, salad trimmings and alfalfa hay. “They should have a fresh supply of greens every day,” she says.

On pasture, turkeys must be moved often. Electric net fencing is an inexpensive, easy-to-use system that allows for rotational grazing while keeping turkeys from wandering too far afield.

Cats, snakes, raccoons, foxes, hawks, owls, snakes and other predators prey on turkeys. A secure coop, electric fencing and galvanized wire pens are the best defense to keep your flock safe. Keep in mind that heritage varieties can fly. (The breasts of industrial birds are too heavy to allow them to take flight.) Schrider suggests clipping their wings to keep turkeys from escaping their fencing.

Marketing Turkey Eggs & Meat

When raising turkeys for meat, outside of Thanksgiving and Christmas, there is still a small but profitable market for turkey products, such as bacon, sausage and ground turkey. With a goal of increasing demand, the National Turkey Federation launched a 20 by 2020 campaign to encourage people to consume 20 pounds per capita of lean turkey meat by 2020.

Of the 80 Broad Breasted Whites and 20 heritage varieties Gillespie raises on The Living Farm, most are destined for Thanksgiving tables. Some of the heritage turkeys are reserved for breed stock, but she is confident the farm could sell turkey most of the year. Gillespie also acknowledges the challenge of marketing heritage varieties during the holidays.

“Stores sell turkeys below the cost of producing a turkey,” she says. “You have to educate your customers as to why your turkeys cost more than the store.” Raising certified organic turkeys is one way to boost your return on investment.

To boost year-round demand, Schrider encourages farmers to educate shoppers about heritage varieties, including the best cooking techniques.

“You’ve got to use heritage cooking techniques, such as slow-roasting and basting, with heritage birds,” he says. Organizations such as Slow Food USA and Chefs Collaborative have recipes for preparing heritage varieties on their website.

Beyond meat, there is a niche market for turkey eggs. Hens start laying at 32 weeks—compared with 20 weeks for chickens—and lay up to 120 eggs during peak laying season, which extends from January through June.

Although Schrider calls turkey eggs “perfectly good eating eggs,” he notes that the proteins in their egg whites are thicker than in chicken eggs, making them unsuitable for light, fluffy foods. “They are good for pound cake but not angel food cake,” he says.

The Living Farm delivers turkey eggs to its farm-to-table café, The Living Café, in Paonia, Colo., and features them on the menu. The over-easy offerings are popular, according to Gillespie. “It gives people a chance to try something new,” she says.

Heritage Turkey Breeds

close up of turkey on farm raising turkeys for meat
Yumiko Yumiko/Flickr

Slow Food USA, an international grassroots membership organization for good, clean and fair food for all, has identified eight heritage turkey varieties that are facing extinction and encourages farmers to preserve these varieties by raising them and encouraging consumers to add them to their plates.

American Bronze

Until the Broad Breasted Bronze was replaced with the Broad Breasted White in the 1960s, it was one of the most popular turkey varieties in the United States. The birds have copper feathers on a background of brown and black with white bars on the tail. Toms weigh up to 36 pounds; hens can reach 20 pounds. The Bronze is listed on The Livestock Conservancy’s Conservation Priority List in the Watch category, with less than 2,500 annual registrations in the United States and estimated global population less than 10,000.

Black

Known as Black Spanish in Spain and Norfolk Blacks in England, Black Turkeys originated in Europe and crossbred with wild turkeys after migrating to the United States with colonists. Although poults often have white or bronze feathers, the mature plumage is metallic black. The birds are small; toms weigh just 23 pounds while hens weigh in around 14 pounds. The Black is also listed in the Watch category.

Bourbon Red

Named for its birthplace of Bourbon County, Ky., this variety was developed from the Jersey Buff for improved meat production. Also known as Bourbon Butternut or Kentucky Red, the turkeys have brownish to dark-red plumage, heavy breasts and flavorful meat. Toms weigh up to 33 pounds, and hens tip the scales at 18 pounds. The Bourbon Red is also listed in the Watch category.

Jersey Buff

Also known as Buff, these turkeys were named for the color of their feathers. Toms weigh 21 pounds; hens, 12 pounds. The variety originated in the mid-Atlantic region and struggled to gain prominence despite its color providing advantages for processing. By 1915, it was nearly extinct. The variety is still available through small breeders and hatcheries. It is listed as Critical, with less than 200 annual registrations in the United States and estimated global population less than 2,000.

Midget White

A variety developed at the University of Massachusetts by crossing a commercial Broad Breasted White with a Royal Palm. The Midget White is a smaller bird with a broad breast. Toms weigh 13 pounds; hens average 8 pounds. Although it’s a flavorful meat bird, it was bred for improved egg production; hens lay up to 80 large eggs per year. It is also listed as Critical.

Narragansett

Named for Narra­gansett Bay in Rhode Island, the variety is a cross between wild and domestic turkeys. The Narragansett has similar coloring to the Bronze breed but is smaller in size. Toms weigh 30 pounds; hens, 18. Hens are strong egg layers. It is currently a Threatened variety, with less than 1,000 annual registrations in the United States and estimated global population less than 5,000.

Royal Palm

With white plumage and contrasting metallic black edging on its feathers, the Royal Palm is a small turkey variety with toms weighing
16 pounds and hens averaging 10 pounds. The Royal Palm is also listed in the Watch category.

Slate

This variety is also known as the Blue Slate, Blue or Lavender because of its solid to muddled blue plumage. Hens weigh about 14 pounds; toms average 23 pounds. Because there are fewer than 5,000 breeding birds in the United States—landing the Slate in the Watch category—production potential is unknown.

Convincing farmers to raise turkeys is a little like convincing diners to try turkey eggs for the first time. Gillespie offers some encouragement. “You will need to practice with turkeys before you are proficient at raising them,” she says. “Once you get the hang of it, it’s worth it.”

This article about raising turkeys for meat and eggs was written for Hobby Farms magazine. Click here to subscribe.

Categories
Poultry

4 Marketing Tips for Selling Heritage Thanksgiving Turkeys

narrangansett tom heritage turkey walking in grass with full feathers displayed
Heritage Breed Narragansett Tom Turkey. Adobe Stock/Jared S. Davies

The taste of heritage turkeys fresh from the farm trumps supermarket turkeys every day. Hobby farmers and foodies know this, yet communicating it to the greater Thanksgiving-celebrating public isn’t as easy. Once customers replace the commercial Broad Breasted White turkey with the heritage Bourbon Red turkey raised on your farm, there’s a good chance they’ll be back for more. The challenge is getting your turkey on their plates to begin with.

“I started out with the impression of ‘raise them and they will come.’ That didn’t happen,” says turkey producer Ed Kramer of Fisher Farm in La Plata, Md.

As Kramer found, raising the turkeys is the easy part for a beginning producer—getting the word out is another story. However, all of the small-scale farmers who contributed to this article said that after their first year, once people knew about the quality and taste of their heritage turkeys, they never had a problem with marketing again.

“People want them like crazy. If I had more time to farm, I’d raise more turkeys for Thanksgiving,” says Susan Kliese, who owns Susie’s Climax Creations in Climax, N.Y., where she produces poults and meat birds. “The niche is growing faster now than it was when I started three or four years ago.”

Heritage turkeys are different than rapidly maturing commercial turkeys in several ways, according to the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy’s definition. Heritage turkeys are naturally mating with fertility rates of 70 to 80 percent; have a long, productive lifespan of five to seven years for hens and three to five years for toms; and have a slow growth rate, reaching a marketable weight in 26 to 28 weeks. Plus, most are hardy enough to pasture, which can save on feed costs. Heritage turkey varieties include Black, Bronze, Narragansett, White Holland, Slate, Bourbon Red, Beltsville Small White, Royal Palm, Jersey Buff, White Midget and others.

When setting up your heritage turkey operation and starting your marketing efforts, ask yourself these questions:

1. Can I sell my turkeys retail, wholesale or out of state?

Before letting potential customers know about your heritage turkeys, learn about how and where you’re allowed to sell them, Kramer urges. Regulations vary for in-state meat sales, so check with your state’s department of agriculture. Sales across state lines are regulated by the USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service.

2. Am I computer-savvy enough to build a website?

Even if you target customers only in your local area, you need an online presence so they can learn about you, your turkeys and your farming methods. If a full farm website is more complicated than you’d like, create a Facebook page for your farm, and encourage friends and customers to “like” it. Use these tools to stay in touch with past customers, as they’ll be the bulk of your business, according to Marianne Reimers, who raises rare-breed sheep and poultry at Black Walnut Woolens in Gaston, Ore. If computer work is out of your comfort zone, hire someone (a tech-savvy student, perhaps) to take care of these tasks for you.

3. What market websites are appropriate for my farm?

Everyone contacted for this article says their listing on organic- and local-food website LocalHarvest.org is one of their most valuable marketing efforts. Other similar websites, such as EatWild.com and EatWellGuide.org, also connect you with customers.

4. Do I want to sell turkeys fresh or frozen?

“We have the impression that customers have the impression that it’s fresh or bust,” Kramer says. After the Thanksgiving rush, he freezes the leftover Thanksgiving turkeys so he can have them on hand for the rest of the winter holidays.

And don’t forget about live turkeys. If you’re not already an ALBC member, you can join today and get listed on the heritage turkey producer list. You might find that you sell so many poults that you don’t even want to raise turkeys to sell as meat.

This article about marketing farm-fresh heritage turkeys was written for Hobby Farms magazine. Click here to subscribe.

Categories
Poultry

6 Facts About Raising Turkeys With Chickens

white turkey on a farm raising turkeys with chickens
Shutterstock

Raising turkeys with chickens is something that many poultry keepers consider. Turkeys have many of the same basic needs that chickens do, which makes adding a small flock of these all-American birds a thriftier choice than adding waterfowl or a herd of mammals.

Before you bring home a bunch of peeping poults, consider these six factors to determine whether turkeys are right for you.

1. Turkey Varieties

While there are dozens of breeds of domestic chicken, there is basically one breed of domestic turkey, Meleagris gallopavo, a direct descendant of the North American wild turkey. Several commercial and heritage varieties of domestic turkey exist, however. Small-scale farms have had success with such commercial varieties as the Broad-Breasted Bronze and the Broad-Breasted Large White (shown above), both of which grow quickly and have a high breast-meat yield.

The Large White is much more popular than the Bronze because of the Bronze’s dark-colored pin feathers, which sometimes remain on the bird after processing and detract from its appearance.

The American Poultry Association recognizes eight varieties of heritage turkeys, including the White Holland, Bourbon Red (shown below), Narragansett, Black, Slate, Standard Bronze, Beltsville Small White and Royal Palm. These varieties do not have the same feed conversion, growth or body size as the commercial varieties, but they are all stunning in appearance and are ideal for the hobby farmer as they tend to be more ornamental but can also serve dually as a meat bird.

I personally love the gray-blue plumage of the Slate and the contrast of the black bands of feathers against the white found on the Royal Palm.

bourbon red turkeys on a farm raising turkeys with chickens
Mtshad/Wikimedia Commons

2. Housing

When raising turkeys with chickens, remember that even small turkey varieties are larger than the largest standard-fowl chicken breeds. Be prepared to provide your turkey flock with roomier housing than what your roosters and hens have.

Each turkey requires approximately six square feet of space from age 2 months to adult. For a flock of six turkeys, a 40-square-foot coop would more than suffice. Because of their larger body mass, turkeys require more ventilation than chickens, especially during the hot summer months. Their greater size and weight also necessitate a sturdier perch than that used by chickens. We use a 2-by-4 with its edges sanded down, and installed 2 to 3 feet off the ground.

Similarly, turkey nest boxes must be large enough to provide turkey hens with the space they need to lay and brood eggs. Our turkey nest box (one per four turkey hens) measures 24 inches high by 18 inches wide by 24 inches deep.

3. Ranging

Turkeys are excellent foragers and happily range freely … and widely. Naturally inquisitive, turkeys tend to wander pretty far, which occasionally leads to lost birds.

If you plan on raising turkeys with chickens free-range, consider either permanent or portable fencing (or both) for your flock. Permanent fencing provides them with a wider range and protection from local predators, while portable fencing allows you to change their paddock on a weekly or biweekly basis, allowing for pasture recovery.

When raising turkeys with chickens, bear in mind that, unlike chickens, turkeys love perching up high—very high. If you have stands of trees within your ranging area, you’ll probably find your flock high up in the branches.

On a similar note, you need fencing that is at least six feet tall. Turkeys that perch high also fly high. I’ve lost count of the number of times we had to search for Henrietta and her daughters, Alexandra and Catherine, in the state forests surrounding our farm. We always found them 10 to 12 feet up a tree we could not climb.

4. Illness (Especially Blackhead)

Turkeys are susceptible to many of the same illnesses that can infect chickens, including avian influenza, pullorum, fowl pox and Newcastle. There is one condition, however, that poultry keepers raising chickens with turkeys need to know affects turkeys to a much greater degree: blackhead (Histomoniasis).

This illness affects turkeys of all ages and has an 80 percent to 100 percent mortality rate. Chickens can indeed develop blackhead, but this is rare; the bigger concern is that they serve as hosts for the blackhead parasite.

Because of this, it is strongly recommended that turkeys not be housed in the same coop as chickens or use the same run or paddock.

5. Laying and Breeding

Turkey hens on the whole produce between 70 to 100 eggs in a laying season, which lasts about five to six months annually. Just as with chickens, certain varieties of turkey—the Royal Palm and Narragansett—go broody easily and make great mothers, while others—the Broad-Breasted Bronze and the Broad-Breasted Large White—rarely even mate, much less produce a fertile egg without artificial insemination.

Whether it is gestated by a mother hen or incubated artificially, a turkey egg takes 28 days to hatch. The resulting infant, a poult, resembles a leaner, slightly taller chick, with a blip of flesh (its snood) at the base of its beak.

turkey poult isolated on white background
Shutterstock

6. Raising Poults

If you plan on raising turkeys with chickens from the time they hatch,  be aware that poults have a reputation for not being the brightest baby birds around. They eat sawdust and fine shavings, so avoid using these for bedding in your brooder.

Poults need to be placed on their food so that they know where to find it. They need to be shown where their waterer is—and have their beaks dipped into the water so that they know there is actually water. Keep the water level in the saucer should shallow by adding pebbles or marbles, because poults will accidentally drown themselves with a regular water level.

Like baby chicks, they need a nutrient-rich starter, a heated brooder and fine grit to help them get through the first few weeks of life.

This article about raising turkeys with chickens was written for Chickens magazine. Click here to subscribe.

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Podcast Uncategorized

Growing Good Podcast #88: Mike Ghia, Maple Sugar & Land for Good

Learn about Mike’s family’s farming heritage, which came to the U.S. from Italy with his great-grandfather and how Mike grew up with a more diverse farm experience than most of us. Mike’s early start in farming served him well as he studied environmental science in college and went on to do agricultural research and vegetable, dairy sheep and livestock farming.

Land access and farm business planning are the areas Mike became interested in early on. He talks about his and his wife’s journey through finding their own piece of property and how this affected his drive to help others trying to access land. Hear, too, about how Mike came to work with Land for Good and the University of Vermont Extension Farm Viability Program. You’ll definitely want to listen to the top business mistakes that small-scale farmers are making and Mike’s advice to fix those!

Hear about maple syrup experiences that Mike had as a kid that helped to form his fascination with sugaring: one in a sugar house and one at a pancake restaurant. He explains the process of sugaring, which started with Indigenous traditional knowledge. Listen to the sap-harvesting challenges presented from year to year as our weather becomes less predictable. Finally, Mike talks about three pieces of equipment that have made it possible for him to be a “part-time” sugarmaker and some grants that have helped with those purchases.

A note from Mike: Even though I am the main person running the operation, my wife and sons have always been a part of sugaring. In particular, they have always helped tap trees. And since the boys were in middle school, Margo and Elijah and Caleb have actually done most of the tapping. Elijah has even come home from college to help. Margo has also often joined me in the sugarhouse to help with boiling and bottling.

Links from this episode:

Land for Good

Categories
Equipment

Winter Tires: How to Maximize Traction

winter tires with snow in the tracks

Winter tires aren’t top of mind until they’re needed. But the time to think about them is actually in the fall before winter arrives. This is the perfect time to prepare farm vehicles for snowy conditions. And one of the main areas to address every winter is tire traction.

Snow and ice can make it difficult for tires to grip the ground and perform as expected. So whether you’re driving your farm truck into town for winter supplies or plowing snow with your ATV, increasing tire traction can enhance safety and performance.

Here are three steps to keep in mind when preparing farm vehicle tires for winter.

Read more: Tackle these 4 tasks in autumn to make winter easier!

Switch to Winter Tires If Applicable

The first step to consider is to exchange summer tires for winter tires, often called snow tires. It might be impractical to switch out the tires on all your vehicles and machines (if appropriate snow tires are even available). But installing winter tires on your farm truck—and any other car you drive in winter—is a smart approach.

Winter tires have deeper, more aggressive treads to provide better traction on snow and ice. They’re also designed to withstand cold, winter temperatures better than regular tires.

All this equates to safer handling under challenging conditions. So for hitting the road on a snowy day, winter tires are a big benefit. For best results, be sure to change all four tires. A mix of winter tires and summer tires probably won’t handle as well.

Add Chains for Superior Traction

One of the best ways to give your farm truck, tractor or ATV/UTV a boost in snowy conditions is to install tire chains. These can work magic regardless of whether you have snow tires installed.

Tire chains are literally metal chains that wrap around tires to provide much-improved traction on snow and ice. They dig in effectively. And they can make all the difference if you’re trying to perform difficult work like plowing or blowing snow.

There are a few small downsides to tire chains. They shouldn’t be used at high speeds (under 30mph is recommended). If gaining traction is a concern, though, you’ll want to be driving slower anyway.

And they shouldn’t be used on dry roads. They’ll damage the surface and wear out quickly. But for working at sedate speeds around your farm, tire chains are a great choice for almost any vehicle.

Read more: Don’t forget about the tractor! These 5 steps will get your machine ready for cold weather.

Keep An Eye On the Tire Pressure

Did you know tire pressure drops in cold weather? Even if your tires were inflated to the correct PSI (pound-force per square inch) at the end of summer, winter temperatures cause the pressure to drop. And this could potentially leading to underinflated tires.

At the start of winter, you should check the pressure in all your vehicle tires. Add air if necessary to maintain the proper levels.

You may have heard about intentionally underinflating tires to gain better traction in snowy conditions. The idea holds that an underinflated tire will sag a little, increasing the surface area in contact with the ground.

However, the many downsides of underinflated tires (including degraded steering, reduced driving safety, and damage to tires and wheels) offset any potential gains in traction.

You get better overall performance and durability with properly inflated tires.

Operating vehicles in snowy weather can be challenging. But these tips will help you get the best traction out of your tires this winter. You’ll increase your safety and performance along the way!

This story about winter tires was written for Hobby Farms magazine. Click here to subscribe.

Categories
Farm & Garden

Cut Flower Farm Season Extension Ideas

cut-flower cut flower flowers season extension
zhang yongxin/Adobe Stock

On a cut flower farm as the cold begins to settle in, flower farms everywhere are putting their fields to rest and preparing for a slow winter. While many may relish this slow pace and are looking forward to enjoying a quiet winter, others may be thinking, “How can we keep the harvest going?”Cut-flower farming has quickly become a booming small-farm industry, with many hobby farmers falling into very real and rapidly growing businesses. As a result, some are eager to see the profits continue as long as possible into the winter season.That’s where season extension plays such a critical role on a small cut-flower farming operation—and on farms of all shapes and sizes for that matter. So below we’ve listed just a few ways you can extend the harvest and enjoy cut flowers longer.

Cut Flower Farm Row Covers

Imagine if you could wrap up your plants in a nice, cozy blanket and keep them warm. Well you don’t have to imagine, as that is the primary job of “frost cloth,” also sometimes called row cover.Row covers are probably the most economical way to begin extending your season. These are simple rolls of thin fabric that can be draped over crops. They are often used to prevent pest pressure, but row covers can also trap heat, helping keep your plants from dying back with the frost. Depending on the type and weight, row covers can help increase the temperature by two to eight degrees, which makes a substantial difference going into the first few frosts of winter.These row covers can also be draped over biennial cut-flower crops and overwintered cut-flower crops to encourage an earlier bloom the following spring. So just this simple addition could theoretically help you easily gain several more revenue-generating weeks on your farm.

Caterpillar Tunnels & High Tunnel Cold Frames

Cold frames or caterpillar tunnels can greatly extend your growing season. You can easily prolong dahlia and heirloom mum harvests, as well as so many other cut flower varieties, with this type of season extension.Much like a row cover, these will help keep the frost off of your plants and thus extend your growing season. Unlike the row covers, these typically stay a good bit warmer, although there are variables based on the size of the tunnel, the quality of the tunnel, and so on. These come in so many various shapes and sizes, but they are typically all more economical than a full greenhouse setup, although considerably more expensive than floating row covers.Unlike true greenhouses, these tunnels are neither heated nor climate-controlled. They do work very well, but the temperature inside the tunnel is still directly impacted by weather conditions outside.With that said, these structures often increase your sales period both in fall and early spring on a cut flower farm. Many cut-flower farmers and gardeners use them year-round for season extension, getting a wonderful jump on the following spring.

Greenhouses

Admittedly the terms greenhouses, cold frame and tunnel are all used interchangeably by many people. For the sake of this article, though, we will be only calling it a greenhouse if it has an option to heat the air inside.Many true greenhouses not only heat the air but have fans to better circulate that air. Some are wood-powered, others use water heating, or some are electric. But, regardless, this is the option if you truly would like the ability to grow cut flowers year-round.

This expanded growing capability is the major benefit to a greenhouse, of course, but what I considered to be potentially even more valuable is the ability to use a space like a greenhouse to start all of your own cut flower seeds.  Perhaps the most critical start to any grower’s season is starting their seedlings. Without strong healthy seedlings, you could struggle to have a strong growing season.Many small farms do not have this space, so they often buy a large portion of ‘plugs’ or plant starts in early spring. By starting your plants in a greenhouse, you will greatly decrease your operation costs, while also getting a strong start to your growing season.Regardless of what method you choose for season extension on your cut flower farm, they all can greatly increase your business opportunities. But remember that it’s okay to start small and grow from there. Many excellent flower farmers grow for years and years without any of these options, and they can still be very successful.

This article about season extenders for a cut flower farm was written for Hobby Farms magazine. Click here to subscribe.

Categories
Crops & Gardening

What Weeds are Edible in the Fall: 7 Common Farm Plants

chickweed is a great addtion to a what weeds are edible in the fall list
John Tann/Flickr

What weeds are edible in the fall can be a tasty question on a farm. If you haven’t yet ventured into the world of foraging, it might be more within your reach than you think. Many of the best and most nutritious wild edibles grow right in your garden, along your woods or around your house, and like vegetables, each has its seasons. Lucky for us, some of the tastiest wild edibles grow—or at least mature—in the fall. Here are seven varieties to try…

A Quick Note About Foraging

I think everyone should try foraging. It is a fun, seasonal activity the whole family can take part in. However, find several trusted regional sources to help confirm your finds. Many safe-to-eat plants have dangerous look-alikes, so avoid consuming anything you haven’t positively identified, and always start by tasting small amounts first. Also, never eat anything from areas regularly sprayed with herbicide or that grow along a busy roadside, as they can be contaminated.

Now on to the fall menu …

1. Chickweed

One of the more refreshing wild edibles, chickweed (pictured above) is a prolific treat. It’s great for salads, salves and garnishes. Topping the what weeds are edible in the fall list, chickweed often comes up when most other plants are going down for the winter.

What’s Edible: leaves and stem

How to Identify It: Chickweed is low-growing and green with tender oval, almost tear-drop-shaped leaves. There are several different types of chickweed, but the best tasting has leaves that grow out of the stem––not the hairy chickweed or the chickweed without a stem, which are both edible though not as succulent.

Where to Find It: fertile areas and gardens, typically growing in mounds when uncultivated

Growing Season: fall and spring

How to Eat It: A chickweed salad is a refreshing and healthful side dish, especially when topped with a creamy vinaigrette, some pears and toasted nuts. Chickweed is also known for its skin-soothing properties, so you can make any extra you may find into a nice skin salve.

2. Wood Sorrel

wood sorrel is on the what weeds are edible in the fall list
Elenarts/iStock/Thinkstock

If you like a good herb, few are as bright and cheerful as the wood sorrel. It is tart, lively and just a little adds a lot of flavor when you’re searching for what weeds are edible in the fall.

What’s Edible: leaves, flowers, young seed pods and tender stems

How to Identify It: “There are no poisonous look-alikes,” as Chris Bennet notes in Southeast Foraging (Timber Press, 2015). Common lookalikes are clover or common phlox, but neither is poisonous. Wood sorrel looks similar to clover but with thinner, cleaner leaves on a taller plant. The sorrel flowers are small, yellow and edible, and the resulting seed pods are tart and tasty bursts of flavor when young.

Where to Find It: around the edge of the woods or in shady parts of the garden

Growing Season: spring through early fall

How to Eat It: Wood sorrel is best in salads, but it can also be added to juices or as a garnish to fish. This wild edible is also known for being a blood cleanser, as well as good for stomach issues like indigestion.

3. Rose Hips

wild edibles rose hips
trombone65/Flickr

I appreciate a plant that fights me all year long, scratches and scrapes me, then rewards me with a nice treat at the end of the season. Rose hips are that treat.

What’s Edible: the flesh of the red berries

How to Identify It: Rose hips are the bright-red berries that grow on most every rose variety. Rose plants in general are identified by their thorns and flowers throughout the year, then their thorns and clusters of red berries in the fall and early winter—before the squirrels and birds find them.

Where to Find It: on mature rose bushes at the edges of woods, near streams or around houses

Growing Season: fall and winter

How to Eat It: Although the seeds have been known to cause some intestinal distress, the flesh is a tart, tasty treat that can be nibbled off the raw berries (kids particularly enjoy this endeavor). Or boil rose hips––seeds and all––to make a tea high in vitamin C, then strain out the pulp and serve as is or add to a sauce, sorbet or soup. The hips themselves are also high in vitamins K, A and E, as well as manganese, calcium, magnesium and dietary fiber, according to OutdoorLife.com.

4. Goldenrod

wild edibles goldenrod
Ryan/Flickr

I know seeing this plant on the what weeds are edible in the fall list has given some of you a double take—you can eat goldenrod? But yes, this ridiculously prolific, and sometimes unwanted, flower be fun and colorful to cook with—or dye with, but that’s for another article.

What’s Edible: the yellow plume of flowers

How to Identify It: In the late summer and into the fall, goldenrod starts sending out its flower plumes. These flowers are an earthy but vibrant yellow, growing about 4 to 6 feet high.

Where to Find It: Pastures and the edges of gardens with good sunlight.

Growing Season: late summer to early fall

How to Eat It: Use the yellow goldenrod flowers to make a bright tea by simmering them for half an hour or more. You can then drink this earthy tea, make a stock for soup or use it to poach fish––a fun thing to do with children for the bright-yellow color it produces.

5. Watercress

wild edibles watercress
Wendell Smith/Flickr

Few things are more exciting to find in your pond or creek than a patch of fresh watercress especially when you know what weeds are edible in the fall. This spicy green makes a spectacular and somewhat spicy salad or garnish for pizzas.

What’s Edible: leaves and tender part of the stem

How to Identify It: Leaves are green and tender, occasionally with a slight red tint. On the stem, smaller lobed leaves lead to one larger, central round lobe. Stems are generally not more than a few inches in length––if you find a similar but taller plant, be careful as it could be the poisonous water hemlock. The leaves of water hemlock are more pointed, however, and tend to have a yellowish-green tint.

Where to Find It: shallow ponds and creeks.

Note, watercress should only be eaten from trusty water sources. Watch out for farm animal or factory runoff upstream.

Growing Season: fall and spring

How to Eat It: Watercress—like chickweed—is one of those exciting foraged greens that can be eaten in large bunches and makes for great salads or pestos. It can also be cooked and made into soups, sauces or even used to top pizzas or sandwiches.

6. Cattails

cattails at a pond's edge - what weeds are edible in the fall
liz west/Flickr

“No green plant produces more edible starch per acre than Cat O’Nine Tails;” according to EatTheWeeds.com. “Not potatoes, rice, taros or yams.” Or put another way, we have all underestimated and under-appreciated our beloved cattails and should add them to our what weeds are edible in the fall list.

What’s Edible: lower stalk and roots (fall); the pollen and young stalks (summer)

How to Identify It: Look for the iconic “corndog” seed head, and follow that down to the oval base where you will dig the rhizome and cut the lower stalk.

Where to Find It: In swampy, moist edges of ponds and lakes. Avoid harvesting on roadsides or from sites near industrial runoff.

Growing Season: Different parts are edible all seasons. The rhizomes and lower stalk edible in the fall and winter.

How to Eat It: The young shoots are juicy and fresh, similar in taste to cucumbers. Use in salads or cold soups. The roots can be dried and crushed then used as a flour.

7. Wild Carrot

wild carrot edibles
Dean Morley/Flickr

Although wild carrot, aka Queen Anne’s lace, is not exactly the same as cultivated carrots—as it is often more intensely and complexly flavored—this plant can be added to your what weeds are edible in the fall list and truly enliven an autumn meal.

What’s Edible: roots and seeds

How to Identify It: Wild carrot is a biennial, but the goal is to harvest the root it in the first year, the seeds in the second. Many people worry about this plant because of its resemblance to the poison hemlock and fool’s parsley, but if you are very careful, and learn the difference, you won’t have any problems. For instance, wild carrots have hairy stalks, whereas hemlock does not. Instead, poison hemlock has a vertical line and a small white “bloom” that will rub off when touched. Wild carrot also smells distinctly of carrot in both the whitish roots and stem. Poison hemlock smells very faint, and fool’s parsley just smells inedible. As for the roots, wild carrots roots are white and tapered, whereas poison hemlock is not. For a really great breakdown of the differences, check out Samuel Thayer’s book Nature’s Garden (Forager’s Harvest Press, 2010).

Where to Find It: in disturbed ground, gardens, and the edge of pastures

Growing Season: roots (fall to spring); seeds (fall)

How to Eat It: Use the roots anywhere you would cook with carrots, though use less as they are generally more intense and often have a woody core that should be removed. Start soups and sauces with them. Put them in your kraut-chi. You will find a place for them, I’m sure. As for the seeds, use in place of fennel, dill or caraway seeds or toasted and thrown into curries.

This article about what weeds are edible in the fall was written for Hobby Farms magazine. Click here to subscribe.

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Poultry

How to Prevent Frostbite in Chickens: Signs & Treatment

Combs, wattles and feet are prone to frostbite during cold winters. Adobe Stock

Knowing how to prevent frostbite in chickens plus the signs and treatment if it happens is important during the cold weather months.

Several years ago, just a few days before Christmas, a powerful cold front dipped down from Canada and sent most of the country into the single digits. As a cherry on top, it also brought with it howling winds, ice and heavy snow.

On our Tennessee homestead, we knew it was coming. We prepared with extra feed and bedding for our livestock and lined our coop with empty feed bags to cut out drafts.

However, despite everything we did to prepare and keep our flock protected from the winds, which hit negative 20°F during this storm, a few birds developed frostbite.

chicken suffering from frostbite even when keeper knew how to prevent chickens from frostbite
The author put her Welsummer chicken “Miracle” in a frostbite ICU after discovering her legs had been frozen. Photo by Heather Levin

One of our Welsummers froze in the snow after accidentally stepping in some warm water I had just put out. I was checking on the birds every hour and found her in the snow and wind, literally frozen in place and unable to get back to the shelter of the coop. The frostbite on her legs was so severe she had to be culled.

Some chicken keepers assume that frostbite is only a problem in northern regions with harsh winters. But frostbite can happen whenever temperatures drop below freezing and humidity is present. The lower the temperature and the higher the humidity, the bigger the risk.

SIGNS OF FROSTBITE

Frostbite occurs when blood and moisture in tissues freeze. Look for these signs:

  • gray, white, or yellowish tips on the comb or the edge of wattles, which can turn black days after exposure
  • reddish toes and feet
  • blistering, which can occur within 24 to 48 hours of exposure
  • listlessness and loss of appetite

There are several stages of frostbite, just as there are several stages of burns.

STAGE 1 is superficial frostbite, often called “frostnip,” and birds typically make a full recovery.

In STAGE 2, the skin hardens and freezes completely, but deep tissues aren’t affected. In extreme frostbite cases, the affected area can become necrotic, which means the cells in the deeper tissues die completely. This is considered third- and fourth-degree frostbite. It’s permanent and irreversible.

It can take several weeks for necrotic tissue to present. The dead tissue will eventually blacken, shrivel up and fall off, causing intense pain to the bird.

TREATMENT

Treating frostbite takes some care and patience.

First, don’t rub frostbite areas to restore circulation. This can do more harm than good, and it causes intense pain to the bird. Don’t use a focused heat source (such as a hair dryer or heat pad) on the frostbitten area to rewarm the tissue.

Instead, warm the area slowly if it’s still frozen. Put the chicken’s feet in warm water (not hot) for up to 20 minutes at a time. The comb and wattles can be unthawed with warm, damp cloths.

chicken foot with blisters from frostbite
Frostbite can result in blisters that should not be popped. Photo by Heather Levin

Once the tissue is unfrozen, apply a wound spray such as Vetricyn, or a healing herbal wound salve that contains skin allies such as calendula. If blisters develop, don’t pop them.

Another treatment option is St. John’s Wort oil, which is a fantastic natural wound healer and anti-inflammatory that will help alleviate pain, prevent infection, and speed healing. St. John’s Wort oil is specific for burns, which is what frostbite essentially is (just with cold instead of heat). This oil should be applied topically to the frostbitten area at least twice daily.

Keep the bird indoors in a warm room with food and water for several days. Don’t let the bird walk on frostbitten legs, as this can worsen damage. Provide soft bedding in a crate that forces them to lie down and rest.

HOW TO PREVENT FROSTBITE IN CHICKENS

Thankfully, there are several things you can do to prevent frostbite in your chickens.

IMPROVE VENTILATION: Chickens generate moisture constantly when they’re inside the coop from breathing and droppings. And it’s this moisture, coupled with cold temperatures, that causes frostbite.

It’s essential that your coop has good ventilation all year, but it’s particularly important during the winter months. Vents near the ceiling are best to help prevent moisture build-up.

CLEAN THE COOP: Keeping your coop clean during the winter is an essential part of preventing frostbite. Chicken droppings are mostly water, and when those droppings accumulate in the coop humidity levels rise.

An easy way to keep an eye on temperature and humidity levels in the coop is to purchase a wireless outdoor digital thermometer. Putting the sensor on the wall, right at roost height, can give you a clear picture of the internal environment and help you take action when temperatures drop and humidity rises. If you purchase a wireless digital thermometer, just make sure that the range of the device and the sensor will reach from the coop to your home.

Opinions differ on what humidity levels should be in the coop. The Department of Poultry Science at the University of Georgia recommends coop humidity levels of 50% to 70%.

If you do the deep-litter method during the winter, turn the bedding regularly and apply a dry top layer.

PROVIDE WIDE ROOST POLES: Providing your chickens with wide roost poles can also help prevent frostbite on toes and feet because chickens are able to use their entire body to cover their feet during the night. Wooden roost poles that are 3 to 4 inches wide or wider are ideal for winter roosting.

KEEP CHICKENS HYDRATED: Chickens that are dehydrated are at greater risk of developing frostbite. Chickens can quickly become dehydrated in winter when water freezes, or when chickens don’t want to walk through the elements to get to water.

During the winter months, it’s essential that you have some means of keeping a chicken’s water dish unfrozen. One of the best options is a heated waterer, which keeps the water temperature just above freezing. Small portable greenhouses can also help keep water from freezing when waterers are placed inside, especially when the greenhouse is placed on the south side of the run.

TURN TO CAYENNE: Cayenne is a very warming herb known to help improve circulation. You can sprinkle cayenne directly on their feed or add it to any cooked treats you give out to them.

All chickens, whether they’re classified as “cold hardy” or not, can develop frostbite. And while most instances of frostbite are mild and treatable, occasionally, severe drops in temperature can lead to permanent damage or even fatalities if you’re not careful. Even then, accidents can and will happen.

There’s still a lot you can do to prevent frostbite. Simple steps like regularly cleaning the coop and ensuring adequate ventilation can help ensure that your chickens make it through the winter healthy and whole.

This article about how to prevent frostbite in chickens was written for Chickens magazine. Click here to subscribe.

Categories
Poultry

Are Chickens Warm-Blooded? Know the Importance

understanding are chickens warm blooded means the black and white chicken and white chiken eating at a food container suspended from ceiling in an outdoor run are comfortable in many types of weather
Daniel Johnson

Are chickens warm-blooded? The short answer is yes. But the long answer means understanding how this impacts the behaviors and day-to-day care of your flock.

Are Chickens Warm-Blooded?

Caring for livestock begins with learning the basics about your chosen species, but after a time, it can be beneficial to dig a little deeper into the physiology of your animals. We often first learn how to care for our livestock, but later, it can be useful to gain a deeper understanding of the whys.

To best understand a particular living creature, compare them to others and see where there are similarities and differences. For instance, what attributes do chickens share with, say, mammals? At first glance, it might seem like chickens and mammals have little in common because there are major differences such as feathers instead of fur and eggs instead of live birth. In fact, you could almost make a case that chickens have more in common with reptiles.

But the last item on this list — that chickens are warm-blooded instead of cold-blooded — is extremely important and has a large impact on the care and behaviors of your chickens. Don’t be fooled by the eggs or scaly legs: Because chickens are warm-blooded, their metabolism and lifestyle has more in common with mammals than reptiles. Understanding this fact can help you understand the whys behind a lot of other aspects of your chickens’ health and life — from calorie needs and shelter requirements to activity levels and mothering instincts to intelligence. Examining the biology behind the whys can help make you a better chicken keeper and help you enjoy your flock even more.

Your Active Chickens

Warm-blooded animals must maintain a specific body temperature to survive. For chickens, this number is about 105 to 107°F. Even if the air temperature is far colder — even below freezing — a chicken’s body temperature will consistently remain within that specific range. Where does that heat come from? It comes from metabolizing food — that is, taking the energy contained in food and converting it into heat.

The bodies of cold-blooded organisms such as reptiles (also amphibians and fish) don’t perform the work of converting food to heat in the same way. Instead, the bodies of these animals tend to be roughly the same temperature as their surroundings. This is why you see snakes or turtles sunning themselves on a dark rock in the morning; they’re trying to warm up enough to function effectively, and their body temperatures can fluctuate wildly throughout the course of a day in some cases. But the warm-blooded nature of birds and mammals means they can be much more active all day long and must eat throughout the day to power this activity. (Cold-blooded animals can eat much less often because they aren’t powering an internal furnace.)

For chickens, foraging can take up more than 60% of their active hours, but the muscles of cold-blooded reptiles can’t perform for long periods of activity; the energy just isn’t there. Chickens, on the other hand, love to explore and actively poke and peck at the world all day long; again, their warm-blooded physiology makes them behave more like mammals despite the other biological differences between the two.

baby chickens in the garden
Daniel Johnson

Parental Instincts

The warm-blooded nature of your chickens also plays a role in their parental behaviors. Think about reptiles or amphibians for a minute; most take an extremely hands-off approach to parenting. In many cases, reptile parents don’t linger after the nest has been created and the eggs laid, so the juveniles may hatch and start off life in the absence of a parent. (Alligators are an anomaly to this.)

On the other extreme, mammals are probably the most hands-on when it comes to caring for and raising their young. Chickens, being warm-blooded, have parental behaviors that are much closer to mammals. Besides the obvious “brooding” behavior of wanting to maintain a nest and incubate eggs, hens are also quite protective of their hatched chicks, constantly offering them a warm wing to hide under.

Hens serve as role models, showing their chicks how to forage effectively and demonstrating proper roosting techniques. The hen and her chicks form an emotional attachment, and the chicks learn to seek her guidance to differentiate threats from nonthreats. Hens teach their chicks to recognize her comforting clucking sounds as well as her warning calls. The term “mother hen” doesn’t exist for nothing!

And don’t forget the protective role a rooster plays as guardian of the flock. All these active parenting behaviors are possible because of the high energy levels that come with being warm-blooded.

Intelligence

By and large, warm-blooded animals — mammals and birds — are the most intelligent in the animal world. Their complex hearts and high metabolisms ensure that plenty of oxygen is available to power large brains. This means that you’ll find species such as raccoons and ravens on lists of the most intelligent animals, but you won’t find a single snake or salamander (though cold-blooded octopi are pretty clever). So appreciate the intelligence of your warm-blooded chickens; when compared to the vastness of the animal kingdom, chickens are actually quite smart!

Lori Marino, founder of the Kimmela Center for Animal Advocacy, published a review article called “Thinking chickens: a review of cognition, emotion, and behavior in the domestic chicken,” (Animal Cognition, 2017). It showed that chickens can perform basic logical inferences, perceive simple concepts about time and numbers, exhibit positive and negative emotions, possess individual personalities, and may even be self-aware. So while your hens obviously won’t perform complex tricks at the level of a dolphin or dog, they are very intelligent — as any long-time chicken keeper will readily attest.

chickens in a snowy run attached to a chicken coop
Daniel Johnson

Cold Weather Needs

When cold weather approaches, snakes, turtles and other reptiles have different cold-blooded behavioral techniques to respond to winter. Often this involves burrowing and brumation — the cold-blooded equitant of hibernation. But the chickens in your flock don’t hibernate, can’t migrate out of the weather and, being warm-blooded, must stay active and warm all winter long.

We instinctively understand that our chickens need shelter in cold temperatures, but we don’t necessarily think through why this is the case. Part of the reason has to do with the original natural habitat of chickens; they’re native to the warm jungles of Southeast Asia. This means that while modern chickens can handle a certain amount of cold weather, they’re a prone to frostbite on their legs and combs and aren’t nearly as comfortable when it’s cold. So providing a warm winter shelter helps mitigate these issues.

But there’s another good reason why we provide our chickens with a shelter from the cold, and this has to do with the fact that your flock is made of warm-blooded creatures. A chicken’s body is going to do whatever is necessary to maintain its needed 105- to 107-degree Fahrenheit core temperature. So if a chicken is exposed unnecessarily to prolonged cold weather, extra calories are needed to order to metabolize enough heat to keep the chicken alive. Extra calories mean extra feed requirements, so farming costs increase.

If a chicken’s body is working extra hard in the cold to maintain core temperature, the body may scale back on energy-demanding biological functions — such as egg laying. Providing a warm shelter means that the chickens are more comfortable and their bodies are more efficient because biological functions don’t need to expend as much energy just maintaining a constant body temperature.

Chickens also have several biological ways to keep their body temperatures under control on hot days; they can constrict or widen blood vessels to either keep heat in or help it disperse. They can increase blood flow to their combs and wattles to help dissipate heat and fluff up their feathers to permit extra airflow. Too much heat isn’t a good thing for warm-blooded animals either.

For chicken keepers, it’s important to study housing requirements, winter needs and how to keep humidity in the coop at a proper level. This will all help to keep your flock healthy.

Are Chickens Warm-Blooded? A Better Understanding

Studying the physiology of your chickens and their contrast to other animal classes may seem a bit superfluous, but it can really help you gain some insight into why your birds act the way they do. The naming and classification of animals has a long history and is certainly among humanity’s oldest scientific endeavors; taxonomy (in a way) is mentioned as far back as the Biblical Genesis.

The type of scientific exploration into your birds shown in this article can give your another “layer” of enjoyment with them. Chickens are amazing creatures and a deeper exploration into their interesting lives can be well worth the time and effort.

This article about are chickens warm-blooded was written for Chickens magazine. Click here to subscribe.

Categories
Animals

Livestock Health Monitoring: Know Vital Signs

goat and chicken on meadow
Adobe Stock/Carola Schubbel

Livestock health monitoring is critical even if you’re lucky enough to have a fabulous veterinarian who treats the myriad critters you have on hand. However, even if your vet’s incredible, learning to recognize that an animal is ill or unwell will go a long way to ensuring you’re not the owner who cries wolf and monopolizes your vet’s time with issues that aren’t actually issues.

Learning how to take an animal’s temperature, pulse and respiration rates can give you insider information as to whether an animal is well. Comparing the numbers you gather while livestock health monitoring with values deemed normal for farmyard friends can tell you immediately if a call to the vet is crucial.

While the information provided in this article offers ranges of values considered average by species, it’s helpful to take the pulse, respiration and temperature of each animal you own a few times over the course of a few weeks so you can determine what is normal for your herd. Some individuals run hotter or colder than average or their heart may beat slower or faster than what the guidelines deem as normal. This in and of itself isn’t cause for concern; if you consistently replicate the same or similar values, those numbers are just what makes your animal a unique individual.

When referring to what’s deemed typical, consider other parameters as well, such as the animal’s age and phase of life. For example, how old an animal is and its size may affect how often it breathes or how fast its heart beats. Newborn animals will have higher heart and respiration rates than adult animals, and larger livestock tend to have slower heart rates than those that are smaller in stature.

livestock health monitoring by veterinarian taking the respiration rate of a chicken with a purple stethoscope
Adobe Stock/wifesun

LIVESTOCK HEALTH MONITORING

TEMPERATURE

An elevated temperature is often the first indication that something is amiss with an animal’s well-being. However, things such as season, time of day, weather conditions and exercise may influence an animal’s body temperature.

Livestock owners should use a digital thermometer to take their animal’s temperature; though it can be tempting to use the no-contact thermometer, these tools have proven inaccurate on animals (most likely because of the fur, feather, fiber or hair covering most of the animal’s body). The end of the thermometer must be placed inside the animal’s rectum to get an accurate reading of the critter’s core body temperature.

Placing a thin layer of lubricant such as petroleum jelly on the end of the thermometer will make taking the animal’s temperature more comfortable. It’s vitally important that the person doing the temperature-taking not stand directly behind the patient to avoid getting kicked. Most animals do better when someone who isn’t the temperature-taker is restraining their head.

To take the temperature of a four-legged animal, grasp the tail at its base and gently shift it to the side, the slide the thermometer into the rectum, ensuring no force is used. Once the thermometer has beeped that a temperature has been determined, remove the thermometer.

PULSE

Locating an animal’s pulse can be a bit trickier than taking its temperature, and finding the heart rate of larger livestock can sometimes be easier than locating it on smaller animals. To take an animal’s pulse, find a large blood vessel close to its skin. Pressing hard enough that you can feel the rhythm of blood in the animal’s artery, count the beats for 15 seconds and multiply by four. A heartbeat has two distinct sounds:a “lub” and then a “dub,” but the two together (“lub-dub”) is one heartbeat.

There are multiple places you can check your horse, donkey, mule or cow’s heart rate, including under the jaw, beneath the tail bone or on the fetlock. If you have a stethoscope, find the animal’s pulse behind the point of the left elbow. No matter where you find the animal’s pulse, count the beats for 15 seconds, then multiply by four.

An elevated pulse (or respiration rate) doesn’t always indicate illness; it could be simply that the animal is fearful or excited.

RESPIRATION

Respiration is the act of inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide. To get an accurate respiratory rate, the animal should be quiet; it shouldn’t be taken immediately after the animal has exerted himself.

Often an accurate respiration rate can be obtained by simply observing the animal, counting the number of times his nostrils flare or his ribs expand. If you’re struggling to see either of these, you can also place a hand in front of the animal’s nose to feel him exhale. Determine how many times this happens in a 15-second period, then multiply by four.

Respiration rate should never exceed the pulse rate.

LIVESTOCK HEALTH MONITORING: ANIMAL AVERAGES

The accepted average ranges for temperature, pulse and respiration rates for common hobby-farm livestock follow.

HORSE

Temperature: 99 to 101°F

Pulse: 28 to 44 beats per minute

Respiration: 8 to 14 breaths per minute (at rest)

The easiest way to take an equid’s pulse is to place your fingers under the jawbone and press lightly toward the cheek, like where you would find the pulse in your neck. The artery will feel like a piece of thin rope; you’ll feel the blood flowing through the vein by applying gentle pressure.

MULE

Temperature: 99 to 100°F

Pulse: 29 to 36 bpm

Respiration: 11 to 24 breaths per minute (at rest)

While mules are not a species (they’re a hybrid of a horse and a donkey), information on clinical parameters such as temperature, pulse and respiration in mules is incredibly scarce. When looking at recent studies, heart rate in mules appears slower than in other equine, but respiration rate appears to be comparable to those reported in horses.

DONKEY

Temperature: 97.2 to 100°F

Pulse: 36 to 68 bpm

Respiration: 12 to 44 breaths per minute (at rest)

If you’re handling an animal that is unfamiliar with having its temperature taken, assess its pulse and respiration rates before taking its temperature. This will eliminate the possibility of these rates being falsely elevated by stress from the introduction of a new procedure.

PIG

Temperature: 101.5 to 103.5°F

Pulse: 55 to 86 bpm

Respiration: 8 to 18 breaths per minute (at rest)

An arterial pulse cannot be found on a pig; his heart must be felt directly to check his pulse. It’s worthwhile to train your pig to lie on his back so that when you need to feel his chest for his heart rate, the position won’t be completely foreign.

DAIRY CATTLE

Temperature: 101 to 103°F

Pulse: 48 to 84 bpm

Respiration: 18 to 28 breaths per minute (at rest) Respiration rate in cattle is often taken by counting flank movements more than the flaring of nostrils. Start timing on an exhale.

BEEF CATTLE

Temperature: 100 to 102.5°F

Pulse: 50 to 70 bpm

Respiration: 10 to 30 breaths per minute (at rest)

A cow’s pulse can be taken by feeling the artery along the lower edge of the mandible or by feeling the coccygeal artery near the base of the tail. It can also be taken by placing a stethoscope on the left-hand side of the cow, behind his elbow.

SHEEP

Temperature: 101 to 104°F

Pulse: 70 to 80 bpm

Respiration: 12 to 20 breaths per minute (at rest)

The pulse of sheep and goats is often most accessible by feeling the saphenous artery, which runs down the inside of the hind leg. A sheep’s heartrate may increase by more than 50 percent if handling causes him stress, but it will return to near-normal in 5 to 10 minutes.

GOAT

Temperature: 101 to 103.5°F

Pulse: 60 to 90 bpm

Respiration: 12 to 20 breaths per minute (at rest)

Goats and sheep should have noses that are cool and dry; healthy animals will frequently lick their noses with their tongues. A goat that sneezes occasionally is nothing to worry about; goats sneeze when they sense danger to alert other herd members; young goats may sneeze while playing.

LLAMA & ALPACA

Temperature: 99.5 to 102°F

Pulse: 60 to 90 bpm

Respiration: 10 to 30 breaths per minute (at rest)

When checking for the respiration rate of any animal, determine if the animal is struggling to get air into or out of its lungs. Begin by looking at its nostrils and note if they’re flaring (indicating the animal is breathing hard) and if there is any discharge. Is he coughing or sneezing?

Work your visual assessment backward, to the abdomen: Does the animal appear to be struggling to either get air in or expel it from his lungs? Does the animal make any noise while he’s breathing? Any wheezing, snuffling, rattling or groaning is a sign something is amiss; normal breathing is silent unless the animal is exerting itself.

CHICKEN

Temperature: 105 to 107°F

Pulse: 250 to 300 bpm

Respiration: 12 to 37 breaths per minute (at rest)

Like a dog, chickens don’t sweat, so if a hen is breathing through her mouth, she’s likely trying to regulate her body temperature. However, this can also be a sign of stress or illness.

A chicken’s temperature is often more easily taken when there are two handlers: one who can restrain the chicken and one to insert a digital thermometer about an inch into the chicken’s vent.

Livestock health monitoring is relatively easy and few tools are needed other than a keen eye and a watch with a second hand or timer. However, it’s important to know what “average” is for the animals you have. Additionally, as individuals can have their own “normal” that is unique to them, knowing each individual animal’s routine pulse, respiration rate and temperature is key to ensuring you know when something is amiss.

This article about livestock health monitoring was written for Hobby Farms magazine. Click here to subscribe.